Organizational behaviour theories

Organizational demeanor theories1.0 INTRODUCTIONThe purpose of this essay is to discuss the affirmation faceal demeanor theories and concepts ar only useful for managers with real man examples supporting the discussion. Organizations be not buildings or tag ons of machinery. Organizations argon, indeed, great deal who inter achievement to pass sh ard objectives. The consume of organisational demeanour (OB) and its affiliated subjects helps us take cargon what people think, feel and do in compositional settings. For managers and, realistically, all employees, this acquaintance helps predict, record and control organizational events. Organizational behaviour is a playing atomic number 18a of study that investigates the impact that various(prenominal)s, hostings and social organisation gather in on behaviour at heart organizations for the purpose of applying much(prenominal) fellowship towards improving an organisations effectiveness (Robbins, Millett, Mars h, 2004). Though in that respect is still considerable debate as to the comp wholenessnts or topics of the ara of OB, in that location appears to be general accord that OB includes the core topics of motivation, attractor behaviour and power, interpersonal communication, sort out structure and process, learning, attitude study and perception, emotions, change processes, conflicts, wrench design fit stress. To sum up OB is pertain with the study of what people do in an organization and how that behaviour affects the coifance of the organization. To get hold of the purpose the essence of this essay strives to analyze the contr everyplacesial and complex theories and concepts of organisational behaviour to discuss those theories and concepts useful for everyone or only managers of an organisation.2.0 Role of the Manager2.1. Who is a Manager? A manager is person who escapes with and through deviseer(a) people by coordinating their work activities in golf-club to fulfi l organizational goals. The changing nature of organizations and work has altered the role of managers. 2.2. What do Managers Do Describing what managers do isnt an easy or simple designate mediocre as no two organizations ar alike, no two managers jobs ar alike. A managers job rear end be described from various perspectives suffices, roles, innate skills, systems, and contingencies. to each one approach bring home the bacons a divergent perspective on the managers job. counsel is the process of coordinating work activities so theyre completed efficiently and in effect with and through different people. Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least(prenominal) amount of inputs. stiffness is concerned with completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things through with(p) and effectiveness is concerned with the ends. The process of management refers to the idea that management consists of a set of current finales and actions in which managers restrain as they plan, engineer, lead, and control. Planning involves defining an organizations goals and establishing strategies and plans to achieve those goals. Organizing includes designing a structure to carry out the plans. Leading involves motivating subordinates, influencing case-by-cases or teams, communicating effectively, and dealing with employee behaviour issues. Finally, controlling includes monitoring, comparing, and correcting the organizations death penalty. Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different roles or behaviours. He classified them into tierce sets. ace set is concerned with interpersonal consanguinitys (figurehead, leader, liaison). The second set is related to the impartation of information (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson). The third set deals with purpose making (entre-preneur, disturbance handler, imaging allocator, negotiator). Robert Katz identified three sk ills managers make technical, human, and conceptual. He showed that the relative importance of these skills vary according to the management level inside the organization. The systems perspective fundament be used to describe what a manager does because organizations are open systems with be and interdependent parts. Within this system, managers coordinate the various work activities so that the organization stomach meet its goals. The reality of work is that manager give either manage or be managed, and there are rewards and challenges in being a manager.3.0 Organisational behaviour theories and conceptsThere are several crucial reasons wherefore companies should utilize the concepts and theories of OB, as well as understand the primordial price that are associated with organizational behaviour. One of the most important and broad-based challenges facing organizations like a shot is adapting to diverse work environss. Organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in t erms of gender, race, and ethnicity. For example, several key terms that must also be understood organizational culture, diversity, communication, organizational effectiveness and efficiency, organizational learning. 3.1. Attitudes Attitudes are critical statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels near something. When a person says, I like my job, he or she is expressing an attitude virtually(predicate) work. The hypothesis of Cognitive DissonanceCognitive fraudulent scheme system sought to explain the relationship betwixt attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive racquet is any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. The hypothesis argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will purify to trim the dissonance and, thus, the discomfort. In other words, individuals seek stableness with a minimum of dissonance. Self-percept opening People decide on their cause attitudes and feelings from watching themselves be welcome in various situations. (Straker, c Syque 2002-2009) receipts of Attitudes Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Effective managers need to understand behaviours and attitudes of employees. Therefore knowing above theories Managers croupe air press to shrivel the dissonance when employees recognize that the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable. The pressure is also decreased if rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. So the manager may point to external forces such as competitors, customers, or other factors when explaining the need to perform some work activity about which workers may have some dissonance. Or the manager can provide rewards that workers proneness in order to decrease their attempts to get rid of the dissonance. other implication for managers is that there is relatively strong proof that committed and satisfy employees have number 1 rates of turnover and absenteeism. Knowing that managers would like to suffer resignations and absences down, mostly among their most productive employees. Managers can do those things by generating dogmatic job attitudes. Measuring employee happiness through attitude surveys can horrify managers to any significant changes. The manager who knows about the above theories can reduce absenteeism and turnover by utilize those theories and concepts. Employees who know attitude theories and concepts try to reduce dissonance and decide on their attitudes and feelings which lead them to the in(predicate) job operation. thence furthermore successful job performance should lead to feelings of accomplishment, increased contri hardlye, promotions, and other rewards, all desirable takingss that then lead to job satisfaction of employees.3.2. reputationThe sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, measurable traits a person exhibits. There are dozens of disposition traits could use for instance, aggressive, shy, ambitious, loyal, and lazy. The expectant Five position of Personality Dimensions The big-five genius traits areExtraversion The grade to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive.Agreeableness The compass point to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.Conscientiousness The degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented.Emotional stability The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure ( damaging).Openness to experience The degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.Personality-Job scenery possibleness (Holland) Identifies six personality casefuls and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The six staple personality types of work environments are Realisti c, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Usefulness of Personality Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.For managers the major value in sagaciousness personality differences probably lies in employee selection. Managers are likely to have higher(prenominal)(prenominal) performing and more fulfil employees if consideration is given to yokeing personalities with jobs. The beat-documented personality job fit hypothesis has been highly- authentic by psychologist John Holland. His conjecture states that an employees satisfaction with his or her job, as well as his or her likelihood of leaving that job, depends on the degree to which the individuals personality matches the occupational environment. Furthermore it illustrates satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are compatible. Therefore its semiprecious for managers to know about personality theories and concepts. Also being a successful manager and accomplishin g goals means working well together with others some(prenominal) within and outside the organization. In order to work effectively together, managers need to understand each other. This understanding comes, at least in part, from recognizing the ways in which people differ from each other that is, from an appreciation of personality traits. In addition, there are other benefits to a managers understanding of personality. By recognizing that people approach problem solving, finality making, and job interactions differently, a manager can better understand why, for instance, an employee is uncomfortable with making quick decisions or why another employee insists on gathering as much information as possible before addressing a problem. Or, for instance, managers can expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be less satisfied with their jobs than internals and also that they may be less willing to accept responsibility for their actions. People who make out to w ork in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. For that reason knowing personality theories and concepts person can select a job that fit for him or her. For example, Artistic persons are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an Artistic environment, like choosing to be a dance teacher in a dancing school an environment dominated by Artistic type people where creative abilities and convention are highly valued. Moreover knowing those theories help employees to work with their top executive mates/staff with an understanding. 3.3. LearningLearning occurs all the time as we continuously learn from our experiences. It can pay off as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a go out of experience.Classical conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.Operant conditioning Operant condit ioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to vacate something they dont want. Operant behaviour describes uncoerced or larn behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behaviour. The tendency to repeat learned behaviour is watchd by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that happens as a result of the behaviour.Social-learning supposition Individuals also can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of what we have learned comes from watching others ( mock ups)parents, teachers, peers, television and movie actors, managers, and so forth. This view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience is called amicable learning theory.Shaping behaviour theory Systematically reinforcing each concomitant step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Usefulness of Learn ing Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Employees are passage to learn on the job. The only issue is whether managers are going to manage their learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set or book it to occur unsystematically. If marginal employees are rewarded with pay raises and promotions, they will have small(a) reason to change their behaviour. In fact, productive employees, seeing that marginal performance gets rewarded, might change their behaviour. According to it managers can use learning theories and concepts to set off employees to do thing as wanted.3.4. Perception close Making Perception is a process by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions.Attribution scheme Attribution theory was developed to explain how we judge people differently depending on the meaning we arrogate to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individuals b ehaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviours are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behaviour results from outside factors that is, the person is squeeze into the behaviour by the situation. That determination, however, depends on three factors distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. ratiocination making is an implicit in(p) function of management. conclusion making involves selecting or choosing a particular assembly line of action from among the various alternatives available in the decision making situation. able Decision-Making Model A decision-making good example that describes how individuals should behave in order to tap some outcome. Step 1. Define the Problem Step 2. Identify the Decision Criteria Step 3. Weight the Criteria Step 4. Generate Alternatives Step 5. Rate Each Alternative on Each Criteria Step 6. Compute Optimal DecisionUsefu lness of Perception Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not to reality. So whether a managers appraisal of an employee is actually objective and unbiased or whether the organizations lucre levels are among the highest in the community is less relevant than what employees perceive them to be. Employees organize and interpret what they see, so there is always the potential for perceptual distortion. The put across to managers should be clear redeem close attention to how employees perceive both their jobs and management actions. Since the valuable employee who cease because of an inaccurate perception is just as great a loss to an organization as the valuable employee who quits for a valid reason. In addition, job satisfaction also influences organizational behavior, primarily through perceptions of fairness. That means If employees dont feel that their supervisors or the organizations procedures or pa y policies are fair, their job satisfaction is likely to suffer significantly. However, when employees perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is developed. And when employees trust their employer, theyre more willing to voluntarily engage in behaviors that go beyond the formal job requirements.Usefulness of Decision Making Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Studies show that managers may spend up to 70 portion of their time in separate meetings. Undoubtedly, a large portion of that time is spent formulating problems, developing solutions, and determining how to implement the solutions.Therefore it proved knowing decision making theories and concepts is useful for as individually managers. It helps to make decisions in order to gain maximum productivity. 3.5. Motivation Motivation is the process that account for an individuals intensity, billing and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. In todays world motivation is seen as being best achieved by a combination of elements within the organization that combine to produce it needs job design satisfaction. There are many theories of motivation that have emerged in organizational behaviour literature. betimes Theories of MotivationHierarchy of needs theoryMaslows Hierarchy of Needs (often stand for as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that dapple people bespeak to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a hierarchy. Maslows Hierarchy of needs (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009)Individuals cant move to the next higher level until all needs at the current level are satisfied. So they have to move up the hierarchy in order.Theory X YVery simply, Theory X presents an essentially negative view of people and Theory Y offers a positive view.Two-factor theorymotivation-hygiene theory proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas adscit itious factors are associated with job dissatisfaction.McClellands Theory of NeedsMcClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones early manner experiences. Theory focuses onpeople havingthree fundamental needs that exist in different degrees, one being a stronger preference-The need for achievementThe need for sleeperThe need for power (authority) A persons motivation and effectiveness in authoritative job functions are influenced by these three needs because they have different level of needs in each of these areas. (Edwards, 2009.)Goal setting TheoryConscious goals affect action. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example - to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit. As industrial-organizational psychologists, our primary interest has been to predict, explain, and influence performance on organizational or work-related labors. Thus, we focused on the relationship between co nscious performance goals and level of task performance preferably than on discrete intentions to take specific actions.Reinforcement TheoryIn contrast to goal-setting theory, reinforcement theory says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Goal-setting theory proposes that an individuals purpose directs his or her behaviour. Reinforcement theory argues that behaviour is externally caused. What controls behaviour are reinforcers, consequences that, when given immediately following a behaviour, increase the fortune that the behaviour will be repeated. The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, vistas, and needs. Instead, it focuses but on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.Expectancy TheoryExpectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three var iables or relationshipsEquity TheoryThis is a process theory that focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are handle relative to others. The 4 most common ways to reduce a perceived inequity are to,Change inputs. Change outcomes.Distort perceptions. desert the job. Usefulness of Motivation Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Managers can recognize individual differences by using above theories as almost every contemporary motivation theory recognizes that employees arent identical. They have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual variables. Also managers can match people to jobs. Theres a great deal of evidence demo the motivational benefits of carefully matching people to jobs. For example, high achievers should have jobs that vacate them to participate in setting moderately challenging goals and that involve self-sufficiency and feedback. Also keep in mind that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonom y, variety, and responsibility. Employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcer for one may not for another. Managers should use their knowledge about theories and concepts of motivation to motivate employee using different reward systems. Ex- Individualize the rewards they control, such as pay, promotions, recognition, desirable work assignments, autonomy, and participation. Link rewards to performance. Allocation of performance-based wage increases Piecework bonuses Pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation. So as mentioned above managers can induce employees to achieve organizational goals through knowledge of motivational theories and concepts 3.6. leadThe candidate of leadinghiphip is perhaps one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expect to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives bandage minimizing costs. loss leadership is a special case of interperson al influence that gets an individual or conference to do what the leader wants done (Wood, Wallance, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2001). singularity Theories Trait theories are more traditional and focus on the personal traits of leaders from those of followers. Six traits associated with effective lead included ambition and energy the desire to leadhonesty and integrity self-confidenceintelligence job relevant knowledgeTraits all were not sufficient for explaining effective leadership. Explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders and their aggroup members as well as situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Behavioural Theories Behavioral therapists take a different approach. Behavioralists try to determine the types of leadership behaviors that have produced a higher level of work performance. There are four main leader behaviour studies we need to look a t.Managerial Grid line of work for people caked leaders concern for subordinates on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Concern for production measured leaders concern for getting job done on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high)Contingency Theory In this section we examine five contingency theories. Each looks at defining leadership call and the situation and attempts to answer the if-then contingencies (i.e., if this is my situation, then this is the best leadership sprint for me to use) The Fiedler Model the Fiedler contingency model proposed that effective group performance depended on the proper match between the leaders air of interacting with his or her followers and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence. The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The key was to define those leadership styles and the different types of situations and then to identify the appr opriate combinations of style and situation. Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individuals basic leadership style. He further suggested that a persons style was one of two types task oriented or relationship oriented. To measure a leaders style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire. This questionnaire contained 16 pairs of contrasting adjectives. After an individuals basic leadership style had been assessed through the LPC, it was necessary to evaluate the situation in order to match the leader with the situation. Fiedlers research uncovered three contingency dimensions that define the key situational factors for determining leader effectiveness. These wereLeader-member relations the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader rated as either good or poorTask structure the degree to which job assignments were formalized and procedurized rated as either high or lowPosition power the degree of in fluence a leader had over power-based activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases rated as either strong or weak Each leadership situation was evaluated in terms of these three contingency variables.Hersey and Blanchards Situational leaders Theory focuses on followers readiness. SLT says if followers areTelling (high task-low relationship) The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks.Selling (high task-high relationship) The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior.Participating (low task-high relationship) The leader and follower partake in decision making the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. delegacy (low task-low relationship) The leader provides little direction or support. Leader Participation Model related leadership behaviour and participation in decision making. The model argued that leader behaviour must adjust to reflect the task structure whether it w as routine, nonroutine, or anywhere in between. Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model are Decide Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group. Consult Individually Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult Group Leader presents the probelm to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made. Delegate Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits.Path-Goal Model which states that its the leaders job to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support take to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. kinsfolk identified four leadership be haviorsDirective leader lets subordinates know whats expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks validating leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followersParticipative leader consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decisionAchievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level Path goal theoryLeader-Member permute Theory indicates that leaders develop special relationships with trusted followers.Usefulness of Leadership Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Leadership may not always be important but the aspect of leadership is conceivably one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. In perhaps more than any other area of organizational behavior the leadership aspec t is a combination of learning theories, power, personality, performance appraisal and motivation. This is because leadership is the process whereby an individual must gain the voluntary participation of subordinates with the goal of attaining corporate objectives. Thus, a leaders personality and sense impression of power will influence this process. Further, motivation is a key aspect of leadership because goal will not be attained if subordinates are not properly motivated to achieve them and performance appraisal is a key element in this process. Without adequate feedback that is quantifiable, leaders will not be able to assess employee performance reliably or measure progress in attaining corporate objectives. So its important to have knowledge of leadership concepts and theories to both employees and managers to achieve organizational goals. 3.7. GroupsA group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals. Gr oups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups are work groups formal by the organization that have designated work assignments and specific tasks. In formal groups, appropriate behaviours are established by and directed toward organizational goals.Five stage Group study Model Forming stage The first stage in group phylogeny characterised by much uncertainty.Storming stage The second stage in group development characterised by intra-group conflict.Norming stage The third stage in group development, characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness.Performing stage The fourth stage development, when the group is fully functional.Adjourning stage The final stage in group development for temporary groups characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.Group Behaviour Model Group behaviour emanates from the causes that contribute to the groups effectiveness.Usefulness of Group Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.The group task is a whole and meaningful piece of work, with a visible outcome. According to