Phytochemical screening

Phytochemical indispensable coveringDiscussion5.1. Phytochemical screeningPhytochemical screening provides basic schooling to the upliftedest degree the healthful importance of the plant evoke. In this training phytochemical screening and iii-figure estimation of the chemical constituents of S. asper and L. procumbens pictures the armorial bearing of unlike metabolites including reducing compounds and free radicals scavenging compounds much(prenominal)(prenominal) as flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, coumarins, tannic acids, cardiac glycosides anthraquinones, and phlobatinins. Tannins possessed spasmolytic legal action in self-possessed muscles booths, free radical scavenger and antioxidant (Tona et al., 1999). Flavonoids argon poly phenoplast compounds like quercetin 3-O-glucoside, rutin have antioxidant and germicide properties plot of ground saponins ar glycosides possessed antimicrobial and inhibit Na+ efflux, by blockage of the entrance of the Na + out of the carrel, reducing congestive message failure (Abou-Donia et al., 2008). Various studies revealed that congenital and synthetic derivates of alkaloids and have possessed medicinal importance includes analgesic, antisplasmodic and bactericidal activities, antioxidant and argon social functionful in renal cark (Okwu and Okwu, 2004). Our results agree with investigation of Sofowara, (1993) during line drawing of medicinal plants.The total phenoplast circumscribe of genus Sonchus asper and Launaea procumbens was measured using Folin-Ciocalteu method. Phenolics compounds turn over in fruits and vegetables have acquire considerable attention because of their strength antioxidant activities (Pan et al., 2008). Phenolic compounds react with phosphotungstic and phosphomolybdic hots designate in the folin-ciocalteu reagent (Amin Yazdanparast, 2007), amino acids, proteins, organic acids, sugars and aromatic amines causing interference in quiting (Meda et al., 2005 Rou ra, Andres-Lacueva, Estruch, Lamuela-Ravents, 2006) nevertheless in this investigation, S. asper and L. procumbens were dried before declination maculation ascorbic acid was lost during drying process and amino acids, proteins and sugars tole disclosee be removed from the forceion solvents. Thus, interference from ascorbic acid or some other compounds like amino acids, proteins and sugars should be very little. In the designate remove these plants possessed subject matters of phenolic compounds in ordains from (88.32.1) to (432.82.93) mg gallic acid combining angle (GAE mg/g commit) in LPHE and LPME followed by (95.61.7) to (3321.53) in SAHE and uniform respectively. as well as high flavonoids content was prepargon in methanolic extract of Sonchus asper (15.20.76) followed by LPME (13.980.87) mg rutin equivalent/g extract. The presence of phenolic and flavonoids compounds, possess diverse biological activities such as anti- subversive, anti-carcinogenic and anti-ath erosclerotic activities. These activities strength be related to their antioxidant activity (Chung, Wong, Huang, Lin, 1998). Phenolic compounds whitethorn contribute to anti aerobic action (Duh et al., 1999), inhibitory personal personal effects on mutagenesis and carcinogenesis in military personnel (Tanaka et al., 1998). Several phenolic compounds like tannins present in the cells of plants argon inhibitors of galore(postnominal) hydrolytic enzymes such as proteolytic macerating enzymes used by plant pathogens. some other compounds like saponins to a fault have antifungal agent properties (Aboaba and Efuwape, 2001 Mohanta et al., 2007). This need indicates that the presence of these bioactive compounds in the various(a) divides of plant might be responsible for their antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, allelopathic and cyto venomous activities.5.2. primary and nutritional analysis of medicinal plantsWild growing turn overy vegetables im power an authorised proced ure in the diet of inhabitants of different parts of the world. The immediate analysis of Sonchus asper and launaea procumbens demos that their leaves atomic number 18 a good reference point of gilded elements, protein and sugar. Due to the possession of these constituents, consumers are more benefited when they use these as a substitute of sugar in various food preparations. These values were found to be comparable with or higher than those of comm only when used vegetables such as spinach, lettuce and cabbage. Potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium are nutritionally important, were found in reasonable substance in the leaf. These inorganic compounds play an important region in the chief(prenominal)tenance of normal glucose-tolerance and in the release of insulin from beta cells of islets of langerhans (choudary and Bandyopadhyay, 1999). twain(prenominal) other metallic elements such as selenium, zinc and manganese are considered as unbendable antioxidant micronutrient s affixs immunity and prevent many diseases mediated with oxidative stress and free radicals. Iron is essential element in the deduction of hemoglobin, presence of appropriate concentration in these plants play important role in nutritional disorder such as iron wish anemia (Talwar et al., 1989). Similar investigation was report by Tadhani, M and Subhash, (2006) during the overture studies on stevia rebaudiana leaves for phytochemical and mineral screening. Undoubtedly, there is growing interest in natural sources of nutrients and health-promoting compounds. Within these compounds, polyphenols and antioxidants have special attention, which is understandable because of their role as say-so nurtureive and preventive molecules against chronic ailments, such as atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases, ischemic heart disease, Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, cancer, osteoporosis and in the entire aging process (Aruoma, 2003 Coruh, Celep, Ozgokce, 2007 Dasgupta De, 2004 ).5.3. chromatographic evaluation of flavonoidsFlavonoids are rarely present in free in plant extract. These are found in combination as esters, glycosides or are bound to the cell smother. For this reason, before HPLC analysis, hydrolysis of glycosides or esters was requirement, so that phenolic compounds can be identified, since a considerable dissever is in move form. Moreover, BHT, a powerful antioxidant, was added to prevent degradation of phenolic during hydrolysis (Nardini and Ghiselli, 2004). In the present study the thin layer chromatography investigation was justified by high performance liquid chromatogram which reveal that equivalent composed of three compounds orientin, rutin, hypersoid, SAEE showed vitexin, orientin, rutin plot of land SABE hypersoid, vitexin. SACE possesses vitexin and SAWE possessed hypersoid besides SAHE showed one for hypersoid. Chromatogram of LPME composed of five compounds catechin, orientin, rutin, hypersoid, myercitin. LPCE showed five cognise compounds catechin, rutin, vitexin, hypersoid, and myercitin while LPEE showed two compounds orientin, hypersoid and LPWE showed 2 compounds catechin, vitexin. LPBE showed 2 compounds catechin and vitexin, while LPHE shows unknow compounds. Results of Gudej and Tomczyk, (2004) manly et al., (2006) are in accordance to our study. The TLC results of Poukens-Renwart et al., (1992) showed the presence of vitexin, orientin and aglycone flavonoids in the bagasse and leaf extracts, and in the juice samples, which supports our results.Previous studies indicated that flavonoids were a potent antioxidant agent, quenching radicals, waistcoat oxygen and hydrogen peroxide (Bourgou et al., 2008). For that, natural antioxidants such as polyphenols are often added to foods to stabilizethem and prevent off-flavor development and have considerable interest for their potential role as functional foods or nutraceuticals (Espin et al., 2007). The mechanism by which antioxidants protect food fr om oxidation is by scavenging of free radicals via donation of an electron or a hydrogen atom, or by deactivation of metal ions and vest oxygen. Gallic acid, for example, has been widely used as additives to avoid the degradation of foods and is known to have anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, and anticancer activity (Soong and Barlow, 2006). In addition, vanillic acid is a phenolic derivative known to possess antimicrobial, anti-filarial and hepatoprotective activities (Singh et al., 2006). The results account by Ksouri et al., (2009) show similarty with our results during polyphenolic impression of Tamarix gallica L. using equal mobile phase.5.4. Antimicrobial and anti tumour intensity train of extractsThe results of our screening assays justify the use of the investigated plants in the Pakistani ethnomedicine. The findings shows that Gram oppose bacterium such as Staphylococcus areus was stamp down by MIC of LPCE (2.5ug/ml), LPME (1ug/ml), LPEE (2.5 ug/ml) and SABE (5ug/m l), equivalent (2.5 ug/ml), SAWE (5 ug/ml) respectively while MIC of E.coli includes LPME (2.5 ug/ml), LPEE (2.5 ug/ml) and equivalent (5 ug/ml) however Klebsiella pneumoniae ontogeny was by MIC range of LPEE , LPBE , SAHE , SAME were (1ug/ml) and SAEE was (5ug/ml) respectively. In case of gram positive bacteria LPME, LPBE (5ug/ml), SAME (2.5ug/ml) showed MIC against Micrococcus lutes, while Bacillus subtillus was inhibited by LPBE, LPME, LPEE, SAME and SAEE with MIC (1ug/ml), however LPBE, LPME, SAME and SAEE inhibited the process of Enterobacter aerogenes with MIC (5ug/ml) respectivelythat the plant possesses MIC of bactericide, antifungal and antitumor potential. LPME and LPWE of Launaea procumbens and SAME of Sonchus asper showed activity against E.coli. Staphylococcus areus was inhibited by LPCE, LPME, LPWE and SABE, SAME, SAWE respectively. Fractions of Launaea procumbens including LPHE, LPEE, LPME, and LPWE markedly inhibited the effects of Klebsiella pneumoniae while SA HE, SAME, SAWE showed prohibition against them. Bacillus subtillus was inhibited by LPBE, LPME, LPWE and SAME, SAWE while Micrococcus lutes and Enterobacter aerogenase was ascendencyled to by LPME, LPWE, SAME and LPWE, SABE respectively. Our MIC results agree with results reported by Ndhlala et al., (2009) during characterization of Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and mutagenic investigation of the South African tree aloe (Aloe barberae). Narod et al. (2004) reported that antibacterial activity of hexane, methanol and piss extract of leaf and pedestal of Toddalia asiatica were active against negative and Gram positive bacteria. They found that the MIC of methanol extract against Staphylococcus aureus was 2 mg/ml.Duraipandiyan and Ignacimuthu, (2008) reported the same results during screening of antibacterial activities of various fractions of traditional medicinal plant, Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. The MIC values of the Flindersine compound disjointed from same plant against bacteria Bacillus subtilis (31.25 ug/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (62.5 ug/ml), Staphylococcus epidermidis (62.5 ug/ml), Enterococcus faecalis (31.25 ug/ml), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (250 ug/ml) respectively. Algiannis et al. (2001) proposed a classification based on MIC values of antifungal activities of extracts, where extracts with MIC up to euchre ug/ml are considered as strong inhibitors, 600-1500 ug/ml as turn back inhibitors and those with MIC values above 1600 as weak inhibitors. In this study double up results of antifungal show that all fractions showed some extent of antifungal activity at 200 ug/ml concentration of various fractions, however yield of Aspergillus niger was markedly inhibited by methanolic and ethyl acetate fraction of both plants, while F.solani was inhibited by butanolic, methanolic and form of water fraction of Launaea procumbens and Sonchus asper. Similarly Aspergillus flavus was inhibited by butanolic, methanolic, water fraction of Launaea procumben s and while water fraction of Launaea procumbens, ethyl acetate and methanolic fractions of Sonchus asper showed siignificant growth inhibition respectively. These results suggest that methanolic extracts of Sonchus asper and Launaea procumbens were more efficient to inhibit bacterial growth than fungal one, probably in relation to their active molecules. Several studies attributed the inhibitory effect of plant extracts against bacterial pathogens to their phenolic composition (Baydar et al., 2004 Rodriguez Vaquero et al., 2007) and might be presence of saponins which have antifungal properties (Aboaba and Efuwape, 2001 Mohanta et al., 2007). Kabuki et al. (2000) reported that the antimicrobial spectrums of the sore catechins were more effective against gram-positive bacteria than gram-negative bacteria. This tendency of tannin could be explained by that the structures of cell envelope, including cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall component, are different between gram-positive an d gram-negative bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria possess an outer membrane surrounding the cell wall, which restricts diffusion of hydrophobic compounds through its lipopolysaccharide covering. Without outer membrane, the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria can be permeated more easily and tannins can disturb the cytoplasmic membrane, disperse the proton motive force (PMF), electron flow, active transport and coagulation of cell contents (Burt, 2004). Therefore, the structural difference of bacteria plays an important role in their susceptibility.Crown-gall is a neoplastic disease of plants, in which autonomous plant tumor cells are produced from normal, wounded plant cells by the action of bacteria-borne tumor bring on plasmids. The method is independent of antibiosis (Fadli et al., 1991). It is caused by a specific strain of Gram-negative bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Pelczar and Reid, 1965). As certain mechanisms of tumorigenesis, such as the intracellular incorporation of extraneous nucleic acids, are common in both plants and animals (McLaughlin, 1991), the primal concept of developing this method was that the antitumor drugs might inhibit the groundwork and growth of tumors in both animal and plant systems. Data of the present study reveal that all fractions of L.procumbens and S.asper show antitumor activity with exception of water and chloroform fractions of S.asper however methanolic fraction of L.procumbens with IC50 (130.2 g/ml) and S.asper (451.7 g/ml) were markedly control crown-gall tumor formation and their IC50 value is near to control indicated the use this plant species for the cake and/or sermon of cancer. Hussain, Zia and Mirza, (2007) reported that methanolic extract of Fagonia cretica L. shows potent antitumor activities as compare to control, which supports our results. The results documented by Turker and Camper, (2002) DAS et al., (2007) are in accordance to our results. The results of present study supports the tradition al usage of the canvas plants and suggests that some of the plant extracts possess compounds with antimicrobial and anticancer properties that may be used as antimicrobial and anticancer agents in new afterlife drugs for the therapy of cancer and infectious diseases caused by pathogens.5.5. Phototoxic and cytotoxicity effects of plansCytotoxicity screening models provide important preliminary data to select plant extracts with potential antineoplastic properties for coming(prenominal) work (Cardellina et al., 1999). In the present study the order of LD50 of brine shrimps LPBE LPME LPEE LPHE LPWE LPCE and SAME SABE SAEE SAWE SAHE SACE was reported. Our results showed that the brine shrimp survival is inversely proportional to the concentration of the extract used. The extracts with LD50 values higher than 200 mg/l in the brine shrimp test can be considered inactive (Anderson et al., 1991), but in the present study almost all of our extracts possesses LD50 less than 200 m g/l and are markedly effective in removing foreign cell and could be used as chemopreventive anticancer, however chloroform fraction of Launaea procumbens, n-hexane and water fraction of Sonchus asper was inactive, showed no significance cytotoxicity activity and LD50 value are greater than 200 ug/ml (200 mg/l).Our results agree with the reports inferred by Hussain et al., (2008) during screening various fraction of Nepeta juncea through brine shrimps cytotoxicity that only water fraction showed activity. Zaidi et al., (2006) studied that methanolic fraction of Arceuthobium oxycedri exhibited 100% cytotoxicity for brine shrimps at high dit level, with LC50 of 8.3g/ ml. its cytotoxicity might be responsible for the injure it causes to this fossil species. Cyrus et al., (2008) reported no correlation between antibacterial and cytotoxic activity during screening of Kenyan medicinal plants. The plant fraction that was deadly to brine shrimp nauplii showed low inhibitory activity again st bacteria. From the plant extracts, only Ajuga remota Benth (LC50 Recently scientist have wayed to increase the crop occupation to meet the needed of world population, but unfortunately, crop yield losings every year cod to insects and plant diseases caused by various pathogens (Fletcher et al., 2006), shadowy biodegration of herbicides (Barnard et al., 1997). To control these shortcomings researchers have focused on allelochemicals and bio-herbicides, produced by plants themselves. The phyototoxic results of all fractions of both plants shows that they inhibited the growth of reddish sort as well as shoot as compare to non tempered control plant. Water, methanolic and butanolic fractions showed marked growth inhibition of root and shoot while n-hexane and ethyl acetate fraction of both plants showed moderate effects. Our findings showed similitude with results reported by Javaid et al., (2009) that water extract of Withala somnifera and Datura alba possessed some bioactive compounds which importantly inhibited the growth of root and shoot of Rumex dentatus L. highly competitive weed in straw during allelopathic screening. Similar investigations was found by Kordali et al., (2008) that essential oil isolated from Turkish Origanum acutidens and their phenolic compounds completely inhibited the growth of seedling and roots and possessed antifungal activity when compare to standards compounds.5.6. Scavenging of free radicals and medicinal plantsOxidation is a necessary process for human beings for energy production however during normal metamorphosis oxygen consumption, through many enzymatic systems produces responsive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide anion radical, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide. In pure amounts, these ROS are beneficial in signal transduction and growth regulation. However astronomical amount of ROS produced oxidative stress, attack many molecules such as protein, deoxyribonucleic acid and lipids (Halliwell Gutteri dge, 1999).Human beings possessed a system of antioxidant enzymes which scavenge and terminate presently ROS radical-mediated oxidative reactions they may be used a method of prevention of aging-associated diseases and health problems. In addition to antioxidant enzymes, non enzymatic compounds also take part in removing of ROS such as vitamin c, vitamin E and -topherol in addition to exogenous antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols. This has led to an accelerated search for antioxidant compounds, the identification of natural resources, and the isolation of active antioxidant molecules. Antioxidants have been detected in a subroutine of agricultural and food products including cereals, fruits, vegetables and oil seeds (Adom, Sorrells, Liu, 2003 Netzel, Netzel, Tian, Schwartz, Konczak, 2007 Yu, Perret, David, Wilson, Melby, 2002). Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and propyl gallate (PG) have been widely used as a ntioxidants in the food industriousness (Nawar, 1996). However, the safety of these synthetic antioxidants has been questioned. BHA has shown to be carcinogenic and BHT has been related to internal and orthogonal hemorrhaging at high doses in rats and guinea pigs (Ito et al., 1986). These findings increase the interest of consumer in natural food additives for effective uptake of antioxidant compounds as alternative source for scavenging of antioxidant compounds. Data of the present study revealed that various fractions of both plant show marked scavenging potential. Among them methanolic fraction of both plants indicated that this is more active in scavenging of 1, 1-diphenyl 1-2-picryl-hydrazyl, 2,2 azobis-(3-ethylbenzothiozoline-6-sulphonic acid), lessening of reduction of Mo (VI) to Mo (V) and inhibiting the oxidation of linoleic acid and subsequent bleaching of b-carotene. Similarly superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide most reactive and induces severe da mage to adjacent biomolecules are scavenges effectively, as well as possesses a good metallic reducing and iron chelating properties. Our result shows similarity with the investigation of Hagerman et al. (1998) and Falleh et al., (2008). The results obtained by Duenas et al., (2006) and Kilani et al., (2008) also support our investigations.5.7. Free radicals and changes of automobile trunk and wind clogThe present study revealed that highly earthshaking variation was ascertained in personify weight unitinginess and % increase in body weight. CCl4 and KBrO3 handling of rats importantly precipitated the body weight as compare to the non treated control group. Okada et al., (2003) reported the significant decrease in the body weight of rats by oral constitution of CCl4. These results are in accordance with Lin and Lin, (2006) that CCl4 handling causes a significant decrease in the body weight of the rats as compared with control rats. The results of Noyan et al. (2006) were al so similar to our findings, in which they find the significant decrease in the body weight of mice groups treated with CCl4 intraperatonialy. Khan and Ahmad, (2009) reported that the give-and-take of male rats with CCl4 for 16 weeks caused a significant loss in the body weight, which was restored by methanolic extract of Digera muricata. These studies justify the decrease in the body weight of rats due to CCl4 and KBrO3 which was significantly recovered in the present study with the treatment of various fractions of Sonchus asper and Launea procumbens. Our result opposes to the findings reported by Farombi et al., (2002) that KBrO3 treatment to rat decreases the body weight non significantly as compare to control group. Cadenas and baria, (1999) reported that 80 mg/kg b.w. KBrO3 administration for 8 hours in rats non significantly decreased the body weight as compare to control rat, but our results controverses than these findings due chronic administration of KBrO3 as well as kid ney weight of the rats was significantly increased when compared to control. This increase of tissue weight was balanced by administration of Resveratrol, Meltonin, vitamin E and PBN .Data of the present study revealed that tissue weight of various organs was increased in the CCl4 and KBrO3 treated rats as compared to control groups and DMSO treated rats. These increases were significantly ameliorated by post-treatment of various fractions of Sonchus asper and Launaea procumbens. Lin et al., (2008) injected 20% CCl4 for vi weeks twicely, reported that colored and spleen weight was significantly increased as compared to control. They studied that these elevation was significantly restored by feeding rats with 200-1000mg/kg b.w. genus Solanum nigrum plant extract. Jodynis-Liebert et al., (2008) reported that Aquilegia vulgaris extract attenuates carbon tetrachloride-induce liver fibrosis and increase of liver weight in rats. Farombi et al., (2001) reported that a single dose of KBrO 3 (300 mg/kg b.w.) insignificant changes the liver weight, as was compared to control group rats.Results of Adewole et al. (2007) are also in accordance to our study, in which CCl4 treatment significantly increased the weight of the kidney as compared to control. Our result was supports by treatment of rats with KBrO3 three times a week for 4 weeks resulted significant increase in kidney weight as compared to control rat which was modulated by biflavonoid (kolaviron) isolated from Garcinia kola (Farombi et al., (2001). Administration of various concentration of in the gravid Blue rats showed that high doses of the chemical caused significant decreased in body weight while kidney of the rats was significantly increased when compared to control, however less amount of dose showed insignificant variations prove that low of amount of KBrO3 is not toxic as well as mutagenic (Yamaguchi et al., (2008). Decrease in body weight with CCl4 and KBrO3 treatment in this experiment might occur du e the degeneration/necrosis of body tissues while increase in the weight of various tissues accounts due to the fatty accumulation, lipidperoxidation as well as fibrosis and inflammatory response of the organs. Response of the cells might change and adaptation increase by the protective effects of the rutin and various fractions, results in the recovery of the bodily and organs weight.5.8. Serum marker enzymes and oxidative stressThe areas of dietary modification and chemoprevention show considerable effective approaches for oxidative stress and are a focus on the research of these days. It has been found that some edible plants as a whole or their some portion have protective effects against various disorders including oxidative stress and cancer (Aruoma, 2003). Various studies have shown that several(prenominal) mutagens and carcinogens cause generation of oxygen free radicals, which play a major role in emergence of cancer especially promotion stages of carcinogenesis (Sun, 1990 ).We are of the opinion that for the assessment of protective effects of pure chemical or extracts, it is more important to change the response of the cells rather than priming the cells against the insult. On this base rats were treated with CCl4 (3 ml/kg b.w.) and KBrO3 1 ml/kg b.w. (20 mg/ml) and after 48 h with various fractions of S. asper, L.procumbens and rutin.In the present study, biweekly treatment of CCl4 and KBrO3 for 4 weeks resulted in acute pathological levels of ALT, AST, ALP, LDH and lipids visibleness in blood serum. It was suggested that CCl4 and KBrO3 metabolites through lipid peroxidation of hepatocytes cause acute injuries, cell membrane integrity was altered and the enzymes in hepatocytes leaked out. Similar elevated enzymes activities were and changes in lipids indite observed by (Sreelatha et al., 2008) in serum of rats treated with chemicals and these levels relapsed towards the normal level in rats treated with CCl4 plus rutin and various fractions of S . asper and L.procumbens. Similar investigations were reported by Singh et al. (2008) while working on hepatoprotective effects of potato peel against CCl4 bring on hepatic injury in rats. Farombi et al., (2002) studied the protective effects of kolaviron against KBrO3 induced hepatotoxity and nephrotoxicity in rats, repoted that kolaviron significantly reversed the enzymatic changes of serum level.Serum egg white is the predominant serum protein, which reflects the synthetic function of the liver. Data of the present study reflected that CCl4 and KBrO3 intoxication produced a significant reduction in white serum levels compared to control group similar to other findings (Venukumar and Latha, 2002). In the present study administration of rutin and various fractions of plants produced a significant increase in protein and albumin level. This coincides with the other studies (Dang et al. 2007 Lin et al. 2008) where plant extracts had reversed the protein and albumin towards the nor mal level.Bilirubin is a brownish yellow substance found in bile produced during middle-aged RBCs breakage. Total and direct bilirubin tests are used for identification of liver damages. Increased levels of total or direct bilirubin may be due to jaundice, liver tubes blockage or bile ducts, cirrhosis. Our results showed that CCl4 and KBrO3 significantly (PS. asper and L. procumbens as well as rutin. Same result was reported in other studies (Rafatullah et al., 2006). Similar investigations were reported by Singh et al. (2008) and Sreelatha et al., (2008) while working on hepatoprotective effects of extracts against CCl4 induced hepatic injury in rats. Results of different studies have shown that various enzymatic and non enzymatic systems have been developed by eukaryotic cells to tell apart with oxygen free radicals (Recknagel et al., 1989 Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2000). However when oxidative stress is developed thus the defense system become insufficient (Halliwell and Gutt eridge, 2000). Medicinal plant materials also composed of different amounts of antioxidants which play main role in domineering various pathological actor including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases and lipid peroxidation (Martin et al., 1993, Agbor et al., 2001). These results indicated that various fractions and rutin are helping in response and adaptation of the hepatocytes possibly via the presence of flavonoids, saponins, phenols and tannins in various fractions.Urine analysis may provide information regarding the status of kidney function and acid base balance (Free and Free, 1972). During normal condition urobilinogen are not excreted into the urine unless any pathogenesis. Urobilinogen is the end product of conjugated bilirubin after it has passed through the bile ducts and been metabolized in the intestine. The presence of high levels of urobilinogen, urea, creatinine and albumin in urine are the main indication of kidney injuries induced through CCl4 and KB rO3 treatment (Pels et al., 1989 Farombi et al., 2002 Ozturk et al., 2003 Ogeturk et al., 2005 Simerville et al., 2005). Specific gravity and pH of urine correlates with urine osmolality and was affected with chemical administration (Khan et al., 2009).Our results showed that CCl4 and KBrO3 significantly increased serum urea, serum globulin, RBC and WBC showing renal injuries. glomerular haematuria is typically associated with erythrocyte cases, dysmorphic red blood cells and significant proteinuria. The serum creatinine level does not rise until at least half of the kidney nephrons are damaged or destroyed (Bhattacharya et al., 2005). The glomerular capillary wall is leaky only to substances with a low molecular weight. Once filtered, low-molecular-weight proteins are reabsorbed and metabolized by the proximal tubule cells. High level of proteinurea and haematuria in urine of this study showed the nephrotoxicity induced with CCl4 (Ogawa et al. 1992). The present study revealed tha t oral administration of different fractions significantly improved creatinine and urobilinogen, and decreased the elevated levels of proteinuria and haematuria.Present study revealed that administration of KBrO3 and CCl4 caused marked impairment in renal function along with significant oxidative stress in the kidneys. Serum creatinine, urobilinogen, BUN, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin concentrations were significantly higher in the CCl4 treated rats which are consistent with raze creatinine clearance (Adewole et al., 2007 Bhadauria et al., 2008). Rutin and various fractions of L. procumbens and S.asper signifi

The Germ Theory Of Disease

The Germ guess Of DiseaseThe germ supposition of disease is a theory that suggests that altogether types of specific pathogenic diseases are ca utilize by micro-organisms called germs. This theory was developed by Louis Pasteur through the reserve out of Antoine Bechamp.Observation and questioning stage1854 Pasteur, the 19th century biologist and chemist, suffers the film director of scientific studies where he had studied.1857 He begins his work on the theory of germs and micro-organisms. His depression research based on Fermentation in intoxicant, much(prenominal) as wine and beer.Through his research, he found that fermentation without oxygen, involved animate organisms that abound in the surface of all objects in the air and in water.1861 Pasteurs germ theory is published.Hypothesis and experiment stage1864 He used the process of pasteurisation to heat liquid such as, milk and alcohol at about 50 degrees Celsius for certain duration and then cooled them in order to destroy the micro-organisms.From his observation, Pasteur was aware(p) that if the microbes could affect liquids, then it was a first step that they could also affect animals and humans.1865 Pasteur begins his studies again after his asked by the silk industry to find the cause of the disease that had been affecting the silk worms.From his research he found that this morbific disease was caused by maintenance organisms, in this case parasites, bacteria and fungi. manduction findings stage1867 After Pasteurs influence, Joseph Lister a Surgeon decides to use this theory in medical procedures.Joseph begins to use phenol (Carbolic acid) solution to treat operative wounds, reducing infections and deaths.Repeat by others stage1876 Robert Koch, a German doc was one of the people who established that bacteria actually cause diseases. establish on Pasteurs previous studies, Koch was the first to discover the cause of anthrax (a disease that was destroying cattle and sheep in Europe). Wi th his research, Koch found a rod-shaped bacterium today enduren as (Bacillus anthrax) in a dead cows blood.Koch experimented by growing a culture of the bacteria from the dead cow and injecting samples into hale animals. When these animals became sick and subsequently died, Koch separated the bacteria from the blood of these cows and compared them with the fender set of bacteria samples enlistn from the blood of first cow. He cogitate that both samples of blood had the same bacteria.This occurrence proved that Pasteurs previous force field on microbes the cause of most animal deaths meant that these infections where motivated by micro-organisms.Theory acceptance stage1888 The Pasteur institute was founded in Paris for the treatment of diseases and Pasteur became the director. chore 2 M1Scientific questioning.Questions science is currently addressing.Is at that place a contract to for AIDS? world-wide heat, can it be stopped?Issue offshoot of all, global warming has not been proven it is as much a theory as is the theory of evolution and neither has been established as incontrovertible position.The causes for global warming are m either and varied the a la mode(p) proponent is that at that place are too many of us already on the planet and the numbers are increasing rapidly. The mere occurrence that we are continuously public discussion out carbon dioxide means that carbonic acid gas levels can save increase which allow for further increase the warming effect.Science is organism used in many ways to bring about the aims of Agenda 21, which was divulged at the UN Conference on Environment and festering held in Brazil on June 14, 1992. The main purpose of Agenda 21 is to control the world and compress our state by 80-90%, which would bring the population down to around 500 Million. Vaccines have been developed and are being used covertly to render populations of developing countries infertile and therefore reduce the size of future generatio ns.Questions science cannot answer yet.Where did humanity come from?Is there bread and butter on other planets?IssueAt the moment, from the scientists locate of downstairsstand there is no technology avail satisfactory at gift to inquire this point which makes the whole question very difficult to answer.Firstly, there is no way of knowing what forms of manners could exist on the planets outside of our solar system. Moreover, the universe is simply too vast and present technology cannot give space ships with the ability to touch off fast enough to explore these farthest off regions. Water has been found on the moon in high quantities than ever thought possible, and as Mars (which is thought most seeming planet to restrain several(prenominal) form of emotional state) has conditions close to what is found in Antarctica (other than the absence of oxygen).It is quite likely that Science volition be able to answer this question definitively in spite of appearance the next 10 to 20 days or so.Questions science may never answer.Can time travel be possible?When will the world end?IssueThe altogether way a definitive answer can be substantiated is if time travel was possible and that information could be relayed back to the present time. This in itself is a paradox. However, in order for science to answer the question, other questions choose to be presented.There is a raft of media attention focusing on the fact that the last date on the Mayan calendar is December twenty-first 2012. As most of the predictions relating to let on events in history have been successfully predicted, then it is quite reasonable to hypothesise that by using the Mayan calendar, some catastrophic event could well happen on or immediately after the 21st of December 2012.Philosophical proponents of the last days have diametrical opinions as to when this event will take place. For instance, Christianity teaches that the world will end will end once Jesus has returned to stat e and taken his true followers to heaven. It is written that Jesus himself does not know the date, as it is God the Father alone who knows.Ultimately, it is a known and proven fact that the earth will eventually burn up in a billion or so years time, when the sun has expanded into a giant red ball of fire. However a date within a million years either way cannot be substantiated.Reasons wherefore these questions are assortedIs there feel on other planets?Global warming, can it be stopped?When will the world end? to each one of these questions are different, because in order for them to be answered there needs to be an evolutionary step ladder of scientific knowledge. In other words, the level of scientific knowledge we have at present can only provide answers to a limited number of questions.However once our present level of scientific knowledge evolves to yet a higher level, todays mysteries will be disclosed with ease.Argument For and AgainstThe Theory of Evolution.D1We should a ll be aware that evolution is just a theory and as such this fitting addresses arguments both for and against the Theory of Evolution.What is evolution all about? We are ab initio taught in schools, universities and by the media that all existence evolved from a dewy-eyed life form over millions of years that the more intricate species on earth were compelled by natural selection, thus encouraging all present life on earth to have arrived at its present state as a result of what is termed as survival of the fittest. This is what most people take for granted as to what the term Evolution represents.However, there are new(a) aspects to the term Evolution, One arguecase in microbiology, is where bacteria has become repellent to antibiotics these bacteria are said to have evolved into an antibiotic strain.For the purpose of this argument, I will deal with the former, where the term Evolution assumes that all present life has evolved from primordial forms of life.Evidence has been presented to financial backing this theory most coming from fogey records.According to some records, the fossils examined as evidence reveal that living organisms such as the horse has modified over time. If we look at an example of a transitional form of record, we find that the horse has developed from a tiny animal with multi-toed feet existing within a tropical rainforest type environment, into a single-toed animal that is accustomed to a totally different environment.Additionally, evolutionists have proposed ideas that suggest that whales developed from early mammals such as camels, elephants and cows. Fossils of different animals were found to have similar characteristics as early whales. In their examine this was the evidence to show different transitions.In contrast, there is also brawny evidence that overrules the theory of evolution. If we take a close look at the whales formation, we start to question how is it possible that what was once a camel, adapted to breathing air and land based have the mental ability to know how to hold its breath in order to put its head under water? And how many generations of camels would have to have been born for this ability to become an inherent characteristic of its nature?Camels are herbivores, so at what point in their supposed evolutionary process were they able to begin to endure a wide range of food such as microscopic plankton and very large animals?Likewise, although evolutionists have argued that birds have developed from reptiles such as crocodiles there hasnt been any evidence to support this. Reptiles do not respire in the same manner as birds, so how could a birds lung authority possibly change from another type of lung function? To further support this argument of birds evolving from reptiles, there are no fossil records showing reptiles with feathers, birds with scales or anything in-between.Also, creationists argue that there is nothing in the fossil records which definitively proves that ther e is a relationship between humans and apes or even between any other living systems. This view is supported by the bible in Genesis chapter 124-25, which statesAnd God said, Let the earth be change with animals, each producing more of its kind. Let there be tame animals and teeny-weeny crawling animals and wild animals, let each produce more of its kind. And it happened. verse line 25 So God made the wild animals, the tame animals and all the small crawling animals to produce more of their kind. God saw that it was good.The key we learn from this quote is that every kind of living thing was talk into existence at the same time, hence the word Kind. This includes all life forms that have become extinct since that time and are now to be found in the fossil records.To further support this when we look at the different types of animals of the same kind dogs, whales, lizards and butterflies in the world, the theory that one simple life form evolved into many different types of life fo rms, becomes negated.ConclusionTo conclude, sounding at the arguments above it is quite fair to say that evolution is settle down a theory and not proven as fact there is as much evidence, if not more, to disprove it as a theory. despite the fact that evolutionists have found evidence in fossil records to support transitional forms, there is still no obvious evidence of fossils which show cultivation between crucial life-forms such as humans and the apes.It is sack when looking at the likeness in the anatomy of all living systems that they indicate exceptional evidence for Intelligent Design rather than the development of living things from a simple life form.Bibliography(Scientific theories)EncyclopaediaWikipediaDiscovery passageYouTubeBooks An introduction to microbiology (first edition)

The Development Of Technology In Travel Industry Tourism Essay

The Development Of applied science In Travel Industry Tourism Essay jibe to unknown, 2012 in the hospitality industriousness, it is absolutely vital that companies stay on top of consumer hold in an attempt to maintain their competitive advantage. In the current technologic eithery driven business industry, it has call on increasely important for businesses to utilize e very(prenominal)(prenominal) bit of information and data collected from current and say-so nodes when examining shipway of remaining competitive in the hospitality industry.Pertaining to (William et al, 1999) de pull throughring quality attend in the hospitality industry poop be a major altercate facing hospitality managers in the opening years of the next millennium. It go out be an essential condition for success in the emerging, keenly competitive, world(prenominal) hospitality markets. While the future importance of delivering quality hospitality supporter is behind to discern and to agree on, doing s o presents some difficult and matter to management issues.Since the delivery of hospitality die always involves raft, these issues center on the management of people, and in particular on the interactions between guests and staff, interactions that ar called profit encounters. In the eyes of our guests, our hospitality businesses will succeed or fracture depending on the cumulative impact of the service encounters in which they have participated. cordial reception industry would include hotels, restaurant and other related tourism organizations. This delegacy that the tourists have to encounter with staffs, in that locationof the industries have to have good customer representative that trick gain ground it with their guest and support them resolve their issues. at that place are three elements in the hospitality which motels. Includes restaurant that provide beverages and fare entertainment by the theatre and accommodation provide by the industrial service.In the s ervice delivery in the hospitality industry and service delivery in other businesses there are little are no differences because they both have good customer service which is very important in both industries, they both provide quality service to increase their revenue and to ensure that they satisfy their customer needs and deprivation in the industry.The momentous impact on the growing of engineering in travel and tourism industryTechnology in travel and tourism industry in today world control and deliver secureness and power your need to achieve your business ambitions. It is overly delivers effective answer to meet their customers precise business needs increasing profit and work rate improving customer relation and decreasing cost. However you can depend on technology with the travel and tourism industry to remedy the communication process. When communicating with technology you save time and m iodiney sagely and disengage from computer frequently to communication in pe rson and help people to supporting in touch with co-workers and traders in need of information. therefore technology in the industry improve the communication process, poorly see are in appropriately use technology can interior communication with workers more than it helps and it can be used in the industry to find explore analysis to exchange and present information responsively without discrimination, it in any illustration increase inter subject scene of actionly and has speed up the process of globalization.According to Rosendo (cuyasen, 2012), raw(a) Technology and media has changed the way of tourism. Travelers spin to the internet to research on potential destinations and do bookings online. They even include sharing their experiences of the spark offs they go to. The executive managing director of Ctrip.com said that consumers know more about the industry and travel businesses cannot act money from the information gap anymore. The past ten years has authorize cons umers greatly. A great majority of travelers do their search online for bookings, travel guides and visas. According to John Liu, the executive vice-president and head of Greater China at Google, 85% of travelers do their research on the net and the average traveler does 55 online searches before a booking. Comparing and looking for information is very easy now and all affables of information are available on the internet.Pertaining to Keith Evans, (Evans, 1999-2012) with the volley of technological advancements in the mid and late 20th century, tourists discovered increasing access to a growing array of destinations. From promoting destinations and attracting traveler attention to enable instant reservations and payment collection, communication technology continues to exhibit a significant impact on the tourism industry and travel in general. communication technology solves a considerable role in travel and tourism, as much of modern tourism revolves around the ability of tour ist destinations to communicate their welfares to potential visitors and the ability of those visitors to reach out to points of interest at the destination.Advantages and disadvantages of technology in the travel and tourism industryAccording to leelingz, (leelingz, 2011) nowadays, technology has go on in tremendous leaps and bounds. We cannot imagine the world without technological advances such as computer, televisions, and machines and so on. However there are some advantages and disadvantages of technology. First of all, technologies play a very important role in society because it makes flavour easier to live on and less time consuming. Technology has the ability to occasion shortcuts in working. People do not have to do all the hard labor anymore. People use technology to plan their trip which makes it more convenient and easy. They can research destination to their own pace, expose around for the best fares and hotel deals, and make reservations right from your computer. On the contrary, technology in like manner brings harm to our society. The booming of industrialization and maturation causes pollutions to our world. For example, the smoke from the vehicles and machines affects the quality of tenor and destroy the ozone layer. In addition, technologies also work financial problems in families because some of the technologies are expensive like computers. People that cannot afford to buy this kind of technology will live in a stressful life.On my views the important of technology in the travel and tourism industry is to experience information through research, help to increase the organization revenue, to get information across to their customers and other related organizations, delivers great speed, reach audience that is physically separated from the sender and increase access ability and openness in an organization and bad part about technology is that it can create tension and conflict, easy to be over used, often lack cover and can ser iously drain employment productivity. But in my case without technology the industry could not keep up their infrastructure to keep attracting the visitor and keep the place in order. lodge base tourismAccording to (oikos, 2009) friendship based tourism is tourism in which topical anaesthetic anesthetic residents (often rural, poor and economically marginalized) invite tourists to visit their communities with the provision of overnight accommodation. biotic community based tourism enables tourists to discover topical anesthetic habitats and wildlife, and celebrates andRespects traditional cultures, rituals and wisdom. The club will be aware of the commercial and social value laid on their natural and cultural heritage through tourism, and this will encourage community based conservation of these resources.Community-based tourism affords travelers with rare opportunities to experience local communities first hand. Its distinctive in that it provides an alternative to developme nt thats not sustainable, loose rural and poor communities an additional source of income.In supporting community-based tourism, you can immerse yourself in the day-to-day lives of local and indigenous people turn helping them to preserve their callment and cultural heritage.The residents earn income as disembark managers, entrepreneurs, service and produce providers, and employees. At least part of the tourist income is erect aside for projects which provide benefits to the community as a whole.Tourists will authorize time near areas that are rich in culture and biodiversity, and, at the same time, will get to know the locals at the grassroots level. umteen successful experiences in development countries prove that tourism can become a leading sector for the people who conserve natural resources and live on it. Local people of these countries jointly cooperate in Community Based Tourism and this gives not only economic benefits for them only also becomes an example of commun ity involved last making.A community by definition implies individuals with some kind of collective responsibility, and the ability to make decisions by representative bodies.Locals participation, traditional culture, cross-cultural issues and raise of local income are canonic principles of tourism and it is fundamental to get more in depth for development countries where tourism is dominantly operate by great overseas companies.Usually families interviews make obvious that locals are interested to take part in tourism activities but they dont know how.Often the creation of Community Based Tourism is the best solution for local people or at least a great help for them for example in these countries where the main income is from livestock and the desertification, the spread of unproductive land deprived of vegetation, is one of the main concerns.Community Based Tourism is the jointly planned and managed tourism activities of local group this new business never can be the main or o nly income source of the communities and cooperatives but can be additional income possibility.Issues like generating additional incomes for locals and reducing impacts on environment are included in the government policy about tourism, but there has been little capital punishment and no integrated policy at the national level.The pros and cons of community base tourismBase on the information of (mozer, 1995-2012)Advantage -depending upon implementation some of these can turn into disadvantages.Employment- (1 emp/1000 tourist) labor intensive, few administrative positions, little upward mobility.Infrastructure development -roads, water, electricity, telecom and cybercom, but not necessarily local priorities.Cultural preservation- economic incentives to preserve food, fashion, festivals and physical history, but these tend to be superficial elements of a culture.Environmental protection- econ incentives to preserve nature, wildlife and urban cleanliness.Foreign exchange .generates r esources to import food, pharmaceuticals, technology, consumer goods.Development of health care serve -those these arent always available to local people.Disadvantages -depending upon implementation some of these can turn into advantages.Cultural destruction-(modernization world mono-culture), freezes culture as performers, loss language, religion, rituals, material culture. first-string products- sun, sand, surf, safari, suds, ski, sex (little value added, neo-colonialism)Environmental destruction -game drives, resorts golf, ski, beach, desert, world as playground, SUV. peripheral employment -low skill, low wage, menial services, prostitution, drug trade, gambling, hustlers.Low benefits -no job security, no health care, no organizing, and no work safety rules or environ standards.Development of illegal and/or destructive economic activities- markets for drugs, endangered species, etc.Outside hiring- skilled middle and senior management recruited out of the area and transferred in .Concentration employment -walled resort enclaves.seasonal employmentOutside decision making-decisions made outside of the area, corporate dollars corrupt government.Unrealistic expectations-divert young people from school and brighter futures.anti-democratic collusion- industry support of repressive governmentsLand controlled by the elite group -people relocated, agriculture eliminated, prohibited from N.P.negative lifestyles (STDs- substance abuse, begging, hustlingdiverted and concentrated development -airport, roads, water, electricity to tourist destinations, development not accessible to localslittle forex stays in country -airplanes, vehicles, booze, hot air balloons, generally have foreign ownerspackage programsCruises -eat and sleep on board so the economic benefit to the ports-of-call is very thin and limited.Unstable market -fickle, affected by local and world events, generally highly elastic.Health tourism -traveling to get medical exam procedure at lower cost has its own set of rummy challenges, which include Determining the credential, skills and quality of the facility and personnel. Language communication challenges on topics requiring a lot of details, sometimes even when both parties seemingly declaim the same language. Different cultural issues and expectations around health care and the body. Post-treatment complications, afterwards the tourist has left the facility.

Essay On Corporate Social Responsibility Accounting Essay

Essay On compound complaisant Responsibility Accounting EssayThe terminationinal figure stakeholders means a ships comp every last(predicate) that can effect or be effected by the actions of the cable as a upstanding and they argon the group of members without whose support the memorial tablet can non exist or they are the interested parties who is keen to know what the backup is doing. In this internet site the stakeholder is Steve Morgan who is the demand overler of the Newton Industries and is interested in exertion cost reports.What are the ethical issues convoluted in this situation?Steve Morgan is involved in the ethical issue as he did not asseverate the prudence that the advertising cost is expensed in the current period the winnings income wouldnt be overstated and this would help wholenessself the monetary managers to make decisions and maintain efficient ascendance over resources.What would you do if you were Steve Morgan ?Managerial Accounting or caution bank line relationship is a array of practices and techniques aimed at the providing managers with monetary instruction to help them make decisions and maintain effective concur over collective resources.So, if I was in Steve Morgans position I would had recorded the advertising cost as expense in the current period , so as to not to overstate net income.BYP 3-6Who are the voltage stakeholders involved in this situation?The term stakeholders means a party that can effect or be effected by the actions of the disdain as a whole and they are the group of members without whose support the organisation cannot exist or they are the interested parties who is keen to know what the outturn line is doing. In this case the potential stakeholders are Jan Wooten who is department head in the Moulding Dept. And Tony Ferneti who is quality control inspector of moulding department and are interested in salve the societys money.What alternatives does Tony fall in in this situ ation? What might the company do to foreclose this situation from occurring?Tony has two alternatives in this situation, first alternative is that pass by dint of the inspection and on to the Assembly Department all the units that had defects non-detectable to the human eye. The indorse alternative is that Tony can reject all the units that had defects.The company can overthrow the wages of the employees so that the employees pull up stakes be extra vigilant and lead be careful. Also the company could use the extra money after(prenominal) lowering the wages in providing the employees a better training and could subdue such situation in the future.Part B Essay on corporate social dutyCORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITYCorporate social responsibility (CSR) in note is link up to the obligation of companies and former(a) business governments to increase their positive influence and reduce their negative drill toward society. In that intelligence, while ethics is a matter for ea ch case-by-case in the business field, social responsibility is related to the influence of an organizations business decisions on society. One of the most significant principles on which modern business is based is that of an organization based on responsibility. Organizations must take responsibility for their role in society.Corporate surface-disposed Responsibility is becoming an more and more distinguished activity to businesses nationally and internationally. As worldwideization accelerates and large corporations armed service as global providers, these corporations have progressively recognised the benefits of providing CSR programs in their divers(a) locations. CSR activities are now being undertaken throughout the globe.The rationale for CSR has been articulated in a number of ways. In essence it is about grammatical construction sustainable businesses, which need healthy economies, markets and communities.(megatrend)The key drivers for CSR areEnlightened self-int erest creating a synergy of ethics, a cohesive society and a Sustainable global economy where markets, labour and communities are able function well together. kind investment contributing to physical infrastructure and social capital is increasingly chew the fatn as a necessary part of doing business.Transparency and trust business has low ratings of trust in public perception. There is increasing apprehension that companies will be more open, more accountable and be inclined(p) to report publicly on their feat in social and environmental. change magnitude public expectations of business globally companies are expected to-do more than merely provide jobs and contribute to the economy through taxes and employment.The judgment of corporate social responsibility has been normalized and today represents an integral part of integrated management placements. The principles connected with existing definitions of corporate social responsibility contain of the following taking pa rt in community life, accountability, sustainability, transparency, ethical behavior (without corruption), honesty and inclusion. Socially responsible companies adhere to the triple result approach, keeping in mind the social, economic and environmental influence of their business operations. (Weygand, kimmel kieso. sixth Ed, p 21)Framework of CSRCSR is important, as its a starting point towards habitusing CSR into management control systems. The different phases are withal named footfalls. This is done because the cloth works as a continuum where different steps follow one another and a step cannot be skipped when heading to a system working(a) in day-to-day work and helping to reach set goals. In step three the management control system is shaped and it represent the processes, systems and tools by which the management guides the organizations and its employees behaviour to fulfil the set dodge and targets. To facilitate management actions management should get proper re porting of the step three. After attaining CSR outcomes these outcomes can be reported to the stakeholders via CSR reporting. The steps will be used to analyze the empirical results of the study. The stage of alignment of CSR into management control systems in the case companies will be analyzed according to this framework. In this internal control the role of write up plays a very important concept.Corporate social responsibility and important of accounting CSR is a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their business operations and in their fundamental interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary base of operations. CSR is the process by which managers within an organization retrieve about and discuss relationships with stakeholders as well as their roles in relation to the common cracking, aprospicient with their behavioural disposition with respect to the fulfillment and performance of these roles and relationshipsSeveral concept s related to CSR, which apply to the accounting areasEnvironmental focusing Accounting,Social Environmental Accounting andEnvironmental Reporting or Social Responsibility Accounting.These concepts link CSR to the accounting system, arguing for the grandness of such aspects in the work of accountants.Very well informed businesses and non-profit organizations environment seems aware of the importance of good CSR practices. CSR developed a portal presenting and advertising very well the experience of CSR and international organizations in this area. Such companies in our country have initiated several projects and initiatives.CSR-related concepts influence significantly the accountancy profession for example, Environmental way Accounting is the management of environmental and economic performance via management accounting systems and practices that focus on both physical information on the full stop of energy, water, materials, and wastes, as well as monetary information on related costs, earnings and savings. (tkf.org.in)Managerial accounting is reflected by both physical information on the use, flows and destinies of energy, water and materials, and monetary information on environment-related costs, earnings and savings sides. It has such application fields as assessment of annual environmental costs/expenditure, product pricing, reckoning, investment appraisal, calculating costs, savings and benefits of environmental systems, environmental performance evaluation, indicators and benchmarking, external disclosure on environmental expenditures, investments and liabilities. As this shows, and we will further develop, it is then imperative that all parties involved in the accounting domain consider fostering such competencies in accountants, for the overall good of the society.Managerial Accountability is an international standard for social responsibility, created by Council on Economic Priority Accreditation Agency with the goal of securing an ethical source of products and services. This standard is of a voluntary character and can be applied to any company, regardless of size and branch of operations. Also, the standard can either fill in or be a supplement to companies or industries with a special code of social responsibility.(amfiteatur.economic)Part C Essay on calculateing calculateIs a formal written statement of managements plan for a condition future time period, expressed in financial terms. It represents the primary method of communicating agreed-upon objectives throughout the organization. Once adopted, a cipher becomes an important basis for evaluating performance. It promotes efficiency and serves as a deterrent to waste and inefficiency. (Weygandt, Kimmel Kieso, 6th Ed, p 384)Some employees will question the need for a budget. The procedure of budget preparation is at times seen as delicate, and it is not constantly separate how the attempt that is required leads to any fruitful production. Furthermore, budgets c an be seen as imposing constraint that is hard to live with and establish goals that are difficult to meet.Despite these dismal remarks, it is very important that organizations carefully plan their financial affairs to attain financial achievement. These plans are normally expressed as budgets. A budget is detailed financial plans that quantify future expectations and actions sexual relation to acquiring and using resources. (Principles of Accounting)In small organization, formal budgets are an odd object. The individual management/owners equally manage only by indite to a common mental budget. The individual has a good sense of estimated sales, costs, financing, and asset needs. Each operation is under direct oversight of this person and confidently she or he has the capacity to keep things on a logical course. When things dont go well, the management/owners can normally take up the slack by not taking a pay hold back or engage in some other form of financial requirement. Of c ourse, much small business eventually is sunk anyway. Explanation for unsuccessful are several and varied, but are often pinned on undercapitalization or insufficient resources to sustain operations. Many of these post-mortem assessments reflect a failure to adequately plan Even in a small company, a safe business budget/plan can often result in anticipate and avoiding terrible outcomes.Medium and big organization consistently relies on budgets. This is likewise true in business, government, and non-profit organization. The budget provides a formal numerical phrase of opportunity. It is an essential aspect of the planning and control process. Without a budget, an business will be highly un cultivable and ineffective. (Principles of Accounting)Advantages of Detailed BudgetingThere are several advantages of detailed budgeting for business which are.First of all creating a budget is a long term perspective so it enables to think in a long term and hold ups away from making short te rm goals. It likewise allows thinking long term financial position and gainfulness of a business no matter if the planned budget doesnt successes. (Accounting Tools)making a detailed business budget allows to pin point where the company generates it most of the revenue as in many cases it is easy that the management looses the most profitable aspect. It forces management to consider to whether it should let go non productive part of business and which new one to invest in. (Accounting Tools)Budgeting allows business to think what the key purpose of the business is and to forecast environmental factors that may mint the performance of the business. This forecasting enables to develop strategy to overcome different environmental pressure. (Accounting Tools)A detailed budgeting allows business to look forward what future hard currency flows will be required for the expansion of the business and from where to generate capital in order to meet the future growth needs. (Beyond)Formul ating a budget also allows you to evaluate the performance of the business. Where the business is now and where to be and how to get there. It provides step by step information which is helpful in range where the business wants to be. Without budget it is very difficult to evaluate the current performance of business. It measures the planned performance with actual which gives a complete and true fork up of the business. (Weygandt, Kimmel Kieso, 6th Ed, p 385)Budgeting enables managers to decide where to allocate funds as funds are always limited. Whether to invest in fixed assets to increase production for matching future demands or to invest in working capital. It also enables business to decide which asset is worth investing. (Beyond)A realistic realised budget enhances the probability that the business will successes because it contains all the essentials and targets that have to be accomplished and also enables the business owner to according to the planned activities. (Ac counting Tools)In addition detailed budgeting also helps to formulate different department goals and different functional goals. The functionality of all the departments are necessary to run the business mechanism. essentially budget creates a harmony among the entire department prevailing in a particular business. (Principles of Accounting)A budget is not only helpful for owner or managers of business but it is also useful for the investors. Budgets helps investors to pinch if the business have enough potential and if the business if worth investing. Investors see the budget to find out what are the goals of business and investing in that particular business will maximize the probability of better kick in in terms of interest. (Accounting Tools)Budgets are not just useful in comparing your own performance with the planned one but it is also useful in comparing the performance of your business with the overall industry, like what are the labor rate prevailing in the market, what price to comportment from customer, what volume to sell in order to get maximum revenue. (Accounting Tools) destructionA strong budgeting system serves as an effective planning and control tool that allows a business to plan its short term and long term strategy towards achievement of its short term and long term goals, bySetting up targets for individual departments of the Company,Checking and ensuring the availability of necessary resources for the achievement of the said targets,Streamlining the goals of different departments with that of the organization,Monitoring the actual performance against the budget,Adjusting the performance deficiencies by referring back to the budgetAdjusting the budget where required by incorporating the changes in the working environment, andContinuously planning for effective and better performance.All in all a budget is a system of governance that enables the management to build up the business by adequately planning its each move in the market an d maintain a pro-active approach in its business that serves as a plus point in a rivalrous business environment if managed effectively and intelligently. (Weygandt, Kimmel Kieso, 6th Ed, p 385 386)

Organizational behaviour theories

Organizational demeanor theories1.0 INTRODUCTIONThe purpose of this essay is to discuss the affirmation faceal demeanor theories and concepts ar only useful for managers with real man examples supporting the discussion. Organizations be not buildings or tag ons of machinery. Organizations argon, indeed, great deal who inter achievement to pass sh ard objectives. The consume of organisational demeanour (OB) and its affiliated subjects helps us take cargon what people think, feel and do in compositional settings. For managers and, realistically, all employees, this acquaintance helps predict, record and control organizational events. Organizational behaviour is a playing atomic number 18a of study that investigates the impact that various(prenominal)s, hostings and social organisation gather in on behaviour at heart organizations for the purpose of applying much(prenominal) fellowship towards improving an organisations effectiveness (Robbins, Millett, Mars h, 2004). Though in that respect is still considerable debate as to the comp wholenessnts or topics of the ara of OB, in that location appears to be general accord that OB includes the core topics of motivation, attractor behaviour and power, interpersonal communication, sort out structure and process, learning, attitude study and perception, emotions, change processes, conflicts, wrench design fit stress. To sum up OB is pertain with the study of what people do in an organization and how that behaviour affects the coifance of the organization. To get hold of the purpose the essence of this essay strives to analyze the contr everyplacesial and complex theories and concepts of organisational behaviour to discuss those theories and concepts useful for everyone or only managers of an organisation.2.0 Role of the Manager2.1. Who is a Manager? A manager is person who escapes with and through deviseer(a) people by coordinating their work activities in golf-club to fulfi l organizational goals. The changing nature of organizations and work has altered the role of managers. 2.2. What do Managers Do Describing what managers do isnt an easy or simple designate mediocre as no two organizations ar alike, no two managers jobs ar alike. A managers job rear end be described from various perspectives suffices, roles, innate skills, systems, and contingencies. to each one approach bring home the bacons a divergent perspective on the managers job. counsel is the process of coordinating work activities so theyre completed efficiently and in effect with and through different people. Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least(prenominal) amount of inputs. stiffness is concerned with completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things through with(p) and effectiveness is concerned with the ends. The process of management refers to the idea that management consists of a set of current finales and actions in which managers restrain as they plan, engineer, lead, and control. Planning involves defining an organizations goals and establishing strategies and plans to achieve those goals. Organizing includes designing a structure to carry out the plans. Leading involves motivating subordinates, influencing case-by-cases or teams, communicating effectively, and dealing with employee behaviour issues. Finally, controlling includes monitoring, comparing, and correcting the organizations death penalty. Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different roles or behaviours. He classified them into tierce sets. ace set is concerned with interpersonal consanguinitys (figurehead, leader, liaison). The second set is related to the impartation of information (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson). The third set deals with purpose making (entre-preneur, disturbance handler, imaging allocator, negotiator). Robert Katz identified three sk ills managers make technical, human, and conceptual. He showed that the relative importance of these skills vary according to the management level inside the organization. The systems perspective fundament be used to describe what a manager does because organizations are open systems with be and interdependent parts. Within this system, managers coordinate the various work activities so that the organization stomach meet its goals. The reality of work is that manager give either manage or be managed, and there are rewards and challenges in being a manager.3.0 Organisational behaviour theories and conceptsThere are several crucial reasons wherefore companies should utilize the concepts and theories of OB, as well as understand the primordial price that are associated with organizational behaviour. One of the most important and broad-based challenges facing organizations like a shot is adapting to diverse work environss. Organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in t erms of gender, race, and ethnicity. For example, several key terms that must also be understood organizational culture, diversity, communication, organizational effectiveness and efficiency, organizational learning. 3.1. Attitudes Attitudes are critical statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels near something. When a person says, I like my job, he or she is expressing an attitude virtually(predicate) work. The hypothesis of Cognitive DissonanceCognitive fraudulent scheme system sought to explain the relationship betwixt attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive racquet is any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. The hypothesis argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will purify to trim the dissonance and, thus, the discomfort. In other words, individuals seek stableness with a minimum of dissonance. Self-percept opening People decide on their cause attitudes and feelings from watching themselves be welcome in various situations. (Straker, c Syque 2002-2009) receipts of Attitudes Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Effective managers need to understand behaviours and attitudes of employees. Therefore knowing above theories Managers croupe air press to shrivel the dissonance when employees recognize that the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable. The pressure is also decreased if rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. So the manager may point to external forces such as competitors, customers, or other factors when explaining the need to perform some work activity about which workers may have some dissonance. Or the manager can provide rewards that workers proneness in order to decrease their attempts to get rid of the dissonance. other implication for managers is that there is relatively strong proof that committed and satisfy employees have number 1 rates of turnover and absenteeism. Knowing that managers would like to suffer resignations and absences down, mostly among their most productive employees. Managers can do those things by generating dogmatic job attitudes. Measuring employee happiness through attitude surveys can horrify managers to any significant changes. The manager who knows about the above theories can reduce absenteeism and turnover by utilize those theories and concepts. Employees who know attitude theories and concepts try to reduce dissonance and decide on their attitudes and feelings which lead them to the in(predicate) job operation. thence furthermore successful job performance should lead to feelings of accomplishment, increased contri hardlye, promotions, and other rewards, all desirable takingss that then lead to job satisfaction of employees.3.2. reputationThe sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, measurable traits a person exhibits. There are dozens of disposition traits could use for instance, aggressive, shy, ambitious, loyal, and lazy. The expectant Five position of Personality Dimensions The big-five genius traits areExtraversion The grade to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive.Agreeableness The compass point to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.Conscientiousness The degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented.Emotional stability The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure ( damaging).Openness to experience The degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.Personality-Job scenery possibleness (Holland) Identifies six personality casefuls and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The six staple personality types of work environments are Realisti c, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Usefulness of Personality Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.For managers the major value in sagaciousness personality differences probably lies in employee selection. Managers are likely to have higher(prenominal)(prenominal) performing and more fulfil employees if consideration is given to yokeing personalities with jobs. The beat-documented personality job fit hypothesis has been highly- authentic by psychologist John Holland. His conjecture states that an employees satisfaction with his or her job, as well as his or her likelihood of leaving that job, depends on the degree to which the individuals personality matches the occupational environment. Furthermore it illustrates satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are compatible. Therefore its semiprecious for managers to know about personality theories and concepts. Also being a successful manager and accomplishin g goals means working well together with others some(prenominal) within and outside the organization. In order to work effectively together, managers need to understand each other. This understanding comes, at least in part, from recognizing the ways in which people differ from each other that is, from an appreciation of personality traits. In addition, there are other benefits to a managers understanding of personality. By recognizing that people approach problem solving, finality making, and job interactions differently, a manager can better understand why, for instance, an employee is uncomfortable with making quick decisions or why another employee insists on gathering as much information as possible before addressing a problem. Or, for instance, managers can expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be less satisfied with their jobs than internals and also that they may be less willing to accept responsibility for their actions. People who make out to w ork in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. For that reason knowing personality theories and concepts person can select a job that fit for him or her. For example, Artistic persons are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an Artistic environment, like choosing to be a dance teacher in a dancing school an environment dominated by Artistic type people where creative abilities and convention are highly valued. Moreover knowing those theories help employees to work with their top executive mates/staff with an understanding. 3.3. LearningLearning occurs all the time as we continuously learn from our experiences. It can pay off as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a go out of experience.Classical conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.Operant conditioning Operant condit ioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to vacate something they dont want. Operant behaviour describes uncoerced or larn behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behaviour. The tendency to repeat learned behaviour is watchd by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that happens as a result of the behaviour.Social-learning supposition Individuals also can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of what we have learned comes from watching others ( mock ups)parents, teachers, peers, television and movie actors, managers, and so forth. This view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience is called amicable learning theory.Shaping behaviour theory Systematically reinforcing each concomitant step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Usefulness of Learn ing Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Employees are passage to learn on the job. The only issue is whether managers are going to manage their learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set or book it to occur unsystematically. If marginal employees are rewarded with pay raises and promotions, they will have small(a) reason to change their behaviour. In fact, productive employees, seeing that marginal performance gets rewarded, might change their behaviour. According to it managers can use learning theories and concepts to set off employees to do thing as wanted.3.4. Perception close Making Perception is a process by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions.Attribution scheme Attribution theory was developed to explain how we judge people differently depending on the meaning we arrogate to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individuals b ehaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviours are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behaviour results from outside factors that is, the person is squeeze into the behaviour by the situation. That determination, however, depends on three factors distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. ratiocination making is an implicit in(p) function of management. conclusion making involves selecting or choosing a particular assembly line of action from among the various alternatives available in the decision making situation. able Decision-Making Model A decision-making good example that describes how individuals should behave in order to tap some outcome. Step 1. Define the Problem Step 2. Identify the Decision Criteria Step 3. Weight the Criteria Step 4. Generate Alternatives Step 5. Rate Each Alternative on Each Criteria Step 6. Compute Optimal DecisionUsefu lness of Perception Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not to reality. So whether a managers appraisal of an employee is actually objective and unbiased or whether the organizations lucre levels are among the highest in the community is less relevant than what employees perceive them to be. Employees organize and interpret what they see, so there is always the potential for perceptual distortion. The put across to managers should be clear redeem close attention to how employees perceive both their jobs and management actions. Since the valuable employee who cease because of an inaccurate perception is just as great a loss to an organization as the valuable employee who quits for a valid reason. In addition, job satisfaction also influences organizational behavior, primarily through perceptions of fairness. That means If employees dont feel that their supervisors or the organizations procedures or pa y policies are fair, their job satisfaction is likely to suffer significantly. However, when employees perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is developed. And when employees trust their employer, theyre more willing to voluntarily engage in behaviors that go beyond the formal job requirements.Usefulness of Decision Making Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Studies show that managers may spend up to 70 portion of their time in separate meetings. Undoubtedly, a large portion of that time is spent formulating problems, developing solutions, and determining how to implement the solutions.Therefore it proved knowing decision making theories and concepts is useful for as individually managers. It helps to make decisions in order to gain maximum productivity. 3.5. Motivation Motivation is the process that account for an individuals intensity, billing and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. In todays world motivation is seen as being best achieved by a combination of elements within the organization that combine to produce it needs job design satisfaction. There are many theories of motivation that have emerged in organizational behaviour literature. betimes Theories of MotivationHierarchy of needs theoryMaslows Hierarchy of Needs (often stand for as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that dapple people bespeak to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a hierarchy. Maslows Hierarchy of needs (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009)Individuals cant move to the next higher level until all needs at the current level are satisfied. So they have to move up the hierarchy in order.Theory X YVery simply, Theory X presents an essentially negative view of people and Theory Y offers a positive view.Two-factor theorymotivation-hygiene theory proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas adscit itious factors are associated with job dissatisfaction.McClellands Theory of NeedsMcClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones early manner experiences. Theory focuses onpeople havingthree fundamental needs that exist in different degrees, one being a stronger preference-The need for achievementThe need for sleeperThe need for power (authority) A persons motivation and effectiveness in authoritative job functions are influenced by these three needs because they have different level of needs in each of these areas. (Edwards, 2009.)Goal setting TheoryConscious goals affect action. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example - to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit. As industrial-organizational psychologists, our primary interest has been to predict, explain, and influence performance on organizational or work-related labors. Thus, we focused on the relationship between co nscious performance goals and level of task performance preferably than on discrete intentions to take specific actions.Reinforcement TheoryIn contrast to goal-setting theory, reinforcement theory says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Goal-setting theory proposes that an individuals purpose directs his or her behaviour. Reinforcement theory argues that behaviour is externally caused. What controls behaviour are reinforcers, consequences that, when given immediately following a behaviour, increase the fortune that the behaviour will be repeated. The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, vistas, and needs. Instead, it focuses but on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.Expectancy TheoryExpectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three var iables or relationshipsEquity TheoryThis is a process theory that focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are handle relative to others. The 4 most common ways to reduce a perceived inequity are to,Change inputs. Change outcomes.Distort perceptions. desert the job. Usefulness of Motivation Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Managers can recognize individual differences by using above theories as almost every contemporary motivation theory recognizes that employees arent identical. They have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual variables. Also managers can match people to jobs. Theres a great deal of evidence demo the motivational benefits of carefully matching people to jobs. For example, high achievers should have jobs that vacate them to participate in setting moderately challenging goals and that involve self-sufficiency and feedback. Also keep in mind that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonom y, variety, and responsibility. Employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcer for one may not for another. Managers should use their knowledge about theories and concepts of motivation to motivate employee using different reward systems. Ex- Individualize the rewards they control, such as pay, promotions, recognition, desirable work assignments, autonomy, and participation. Link rewards to performance. Allocation of performance-based wage increases Piecework bonuses Pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation. So as mentioned above managers can induce employees to achieve organizational goals through knowledge of motivational theories and concepts 3.6. leadThe candidate of leadinghiphip is perhaps one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expect to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives bandage minimizing costs. loss leadership is a special case of interperson al influence that gets an individual or conference to do what the leader wants done (Wood, Wallance, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2001). singularity Theories Trait theories are more traditional and focus on the personal traits of leaders from those of followers. Six traits associated with effective lead included ambition and energy the desire to leadhonesty and integrity self-confidenceintelligence job relevant knowledgeTraits all were not sufficient for explaining effective leadership. Explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders and their aggroup members as well as situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Behavioural Theories Behavioral therapists take a different approach. Behavioralists try to determine the types of leadership behaviors that have produced a higher level of work performance. There are four main leader behaviour studies we need to look a t.Managerial Grid line of work for people caked leaders concern for subordinates on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Concern for production measured leaders concern for getting job done on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high)Contingency Theory In this section we examine five contingency theories. Each looks at defining leadership call and the situation and attempts to answer the if-then contingencies (i.e., if this is my situation, then this is the best leadership sprint for me to use) The Fiedler Model the Fiedler contingency model proposed that effective group performance depended on the proper match between the leaders air of interacting with his or her followers and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence. The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The key was to define those leadership styles and the different types of situations and then to identify the appr opriate combinations of style and situation. Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individuals basic leadership style. He further suggested that a persons style was one of two types task oriented or relationship oriented. To measure a leaders style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire. This questionnaire contained 16 pairs of contrasting adjectives. After an individuals basic leadership style had been assessed through the LPC, it was necessary to evaluate the situation in order to match the leader with the situation. Fiedlers research uncovered three contingency dimensions that define the key situational factors for determining leader effectiveness. These wereLeader-member relations the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader rated as either good or poorTask structure the degree to which job assignments were formalized and procedurized rated as either high or lowPosition power the degree of in fluence a leader had over power-based activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases rated as either strong or weak Each leadership situation was evaluated in terms of these three contingency variables.Hersey and Blanchards Situational leaders Theory focuses on followers readiness. SLT says if followers areTelling (high task-low relationship) The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks.Selling (high task-high relationship) The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior.Participating (low task-high relationship) The leader and follower partake in decision making the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. delegacy (low task-low relationship) The leader provides little direction or support. Leader Participation Model related leadership behaviour and participation in decision making. The model argued that leader behaviour must adjust to reflect the task structure whether it w as routine, nonroutine, or anywhere in between. Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model are Decide Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group. Consult Individually Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult Group Leader presents the probelm to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made. Delegate Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits.Path-Goal Model which states that its the leaders job to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support take to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. kinsfolk identified four leadership be haviorsDirective leader lets subordinates know whats expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks validating leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followersParticipative leader consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decisionAchievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level Path goal theoryLeader-Member permute Theory indicates that leaders develop special relationships with trusted followers.Usefulness of Leadership Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.Leadership may not always be important but the aspect of leadership is conceivably one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. In perhaps more than any other area of organizational behavior the leadership aspec t is a combination of learning theories, power, personality, performance appraisal and motivation. This is because leadership is the process whereby an individual must gain the voluntary participation of subordinates with the goal of attaining corporate objectives. Thus, a leaders personality and sense impression of power will influence this process. Further, motivation is a key aspect of leadership because goal will not be attained if subordinates are not properly motivated to achieve them and performance appraisal is a key element in this process. Without adequate feedback that is quantifiable, leaders will not be able to assess employee performance reliably or measure progress in attaining corporate objectives. So its important to have knowledge of leadership concepts and theories to both employees and managers to achieve organizational goals. 3.7. GroupsA group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals. Gr oups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups are work groups formal by the organization that have designated work assignments and specific tasks. In formal groups, appropriate behaviours are established by and directed toward organizational goals.Five stage Group study Model Forming stage The first stage in group phylogeny characterised by much uncertainty.Storming stage The second stage in group development characterised by intra-group conflict.Norming stage The third stage in group development, characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness.Performing stage The fourth stage development, when the group is fully functional.Adjourning stage The final stage in group development for temporary groups characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.Group Behaviour Model Group behaviour emanates from the causes that contribute to the groups effectiveness.Usefulness of Group Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees.The group task is a whole and meaningful piece of work, with a visible outcome. According to